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Radiofrequency ablation

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</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: lightblue">Radiofrequency ablation</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">Tissue ablation using radiofrequency.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="ICD-9-CM_Volume_3" title="ICD-9-CM Volume 3">ICD-9-CM</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icd9cm.chrisendres.com/index.php?srchtype=procs&srchtext=01.32&Submit=Search&action=search">01.32</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icd9cm.chrisendres.com/index.php?srchtype=procs&srchtext=04.2&Submit=Search&action=search">04.2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icd9cm.chrisendres.com/index.php?srchtype=procs&srchtext=37.33&Submit=Search&action=search">37.33</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icd9cm.chrisendres.com/index.php?srchtype=procs&srchtext=37.34&Submit=Search&action=search">37.34</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icd9cm.chrisendres.com/index.php?srchtype=procs&srchtext=60.97&Submit=Search&action=search">60.97</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017115">D017115</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

Radiofrequency ablation (RFA), also called fulguration,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> is a medical procedure in which part of the <a href="Electrical_conduction_system_of_the_heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conduction system of the heart">electrical conduction system of the heart</a>, <a href="Tumor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor">tumor</a>, <a href="Sensory_nerve" title="Sensory nerve">sensory nerves</a> or a dysfunctional <a href="Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissue</a> is <a href="Ablation#Medicine" title="Ablation">ablated</a> using the heat generated from <a href="Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">medium frequency</a> <a href="Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> (in the range of 350–500 kHz).<a href="#cite_note-sabiston-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a> RFA is generally conducted in the <a href="Outpatient" class="mw-redirect" title="Outpatient">outpatient</a> setting, using either a <a href="Local_anesthetic" title="Local anesthetic">local anesthetic</a><a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a> or <a href="Twilight_anesthesia" title="Twilight anesthesia">twilight anesthesia</a>. When it is delivered via <a href="Catheter" title="Catheter">catheter</a>, it is called radiofrequency <a href="Catheter_ablation" title="Catheter ablation">catheter ablation</a>.

Two advantages of <a href="Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">radio frequency</a> current (over previously used low frequency AC or pulses of DC) are that it does not directly stimulate nerves or heart muscle, and therefore can often be used without the need for <a href="General_anesthetics" class="mw-redirect" title="General anesthetics">general anesthesia</a>, and that it is specific for treating the desired tissue without significant collateral damage.<a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-mayo-4">[4]</a> Due to this, RFA is an alternative for eligible patients who have <a href="Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">comorbidities</a> or do not want to undergo surgery.<a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-clev-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

Documented benefits have led to RFA becoming widely used during the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-clev-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-nbc-9">[9]</a> RFA procedures are performed under image guidance (such as X-ray screening, <a href="CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a> or <a href="Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a>) by an interventional pain specialist (such as an anesthesiologist), <a href="Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">interventional radiologist</a>, <a href="Otolaryngology" class="mw-redirect" title="Otolaryngology">otolaryngologists</a>, a gastrointestinal or surgical endoscopist, or a <a href="Cardiac_electrophysiology" title="Cardiac electrophysiology">cardiac electrophysiologist</a>, a subspecialty of <a href="Cardiology" title="Cardiology">cardiologists</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tumors">Tumors</h2></div>

RFA may be performed to treat tumors in the lung,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> liver,<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> kidney, and bone, as well as other body organs less commonly. Once the diagnosis of tumor is confirmed, a needle-like RFA probe is placed inside the tumor. The radiofrequency waves passing through the probe increase the temperature within tumor tissue, which results in destruction of the tumor. RFA can be used with small tumors, whether these arose within the organ (primary tumors) or spread to the organ (<a href="Metastasis" title="Metastasis">metastases</a>). The suitability of RFA for a particular tumor depends on multiple factors.

RFA can usually be administered as an outpatient procedure, though may at times require a brief hospital stay. RFA may be combined with locally delivered chemotherapy to treat hepatocellular carcinoma (primary liver cancer). A method currently in phase III trials uses the low-level heat (hyperthermia) created by the RFA probe to trigger release of concentrated chemotherapeutic drugs from heat-sensitive liposomes in the margins around the ablated tissue as a treatment for <a href="Hepatocellular_carcinoma" title="Hepatocellular carcinoma">hepatocellular carcinoma</a> (HCC).<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>

Radiofrequency ablation is also used in pancreatic cancer and bile duct cancer.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

RFA has become increasingly important in the care of benign bone tumors, most notably <a href="Osteoid_osteoma" title="Osteoid osteoma">osteoid osteomas</a>. Since the procedure was first introduced for the treatment of osteoid osteomas in the 1990s,<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> it has been shown in numerous studies to be less invasive and expensive, to result in less bone destruction and to have equivalent safety and efficacy to surgical techniques, with 66 to 95% of people reporting freedom from symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> While initial success rates with RFA are high, symptom recurrence after RFA treatment has been reported, with some studies demonstrating a recurrence rate similar to that of surgical treatment.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> RFA is also increasingly used in the palliative treatment of painful <a href="Bone_metastasis" title="Bone metastasis">metastatic bone disease</a> in people who are not eligible or do not respond to traditional therapies ( i.e. <a href="Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation therapy</a>, <a href="Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>, palliative surgery, <a href="Bisphosphonate" title="Bisphosphonate">bisphosphonates</a> or analgesic medications).<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cardiology">Cardiology</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Catheter_ablation" title="Catheter ablation">Catheter ablation</a></div>

Radiofrequency energy is used in heart tissue or normal parts to destroy abnormal electrical pathways that are contributing to a <a href="Cardiac_arrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac arrhythmia">cardiac arrhythmia</a>. It is used in recurrent <a href="Atrial_flutter" title="Atrial flutter">atrial flutter</a> (Afl), <a href="Atrial_fibrillation" title="Atrial fibrillation">atrial fibrillation</a> (AF), <a href="Supraventricular_tachycardia" title="Supraventricular tachycardia">supraventricular tachycardia</a> (SVT), <a href="Atrial_tachycardia" title="Atrial tachycardia">atrial tachycardia</a>, <a href="Multifocal_Atrial_Tachycardia" class="mw-redirect" title="Multifocal Atrial Tachycardia">Multifocal Atrial Tachycardia</a> (MAT) and some types of <a href="Ventricular_arrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventricular arrhythmia">ventricular arrhythmia</a>. The energy-emitting probe (electrode) is at the tip of a catheter which is placed into the heart, usually through a vein. This catheter is called the ablator. The practitioner first "maps" an area of the heart to locate the abnormal electrical activity (<a href="Electrophysiology_study" title="Electrophysiology study">electrophysiology study</a>) before the responsible tissue is eliminated. Radiofrequency ablation technique can be used in AF, either to block the <a href="Atrioventricular_node" title="Atrioventricular node">atrioventricular node</a> after implantation of a pacemaker or to block conduction within the <a href="Left_atrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Left atrium">left atrium</a>, especially around the <a href="Pulmonary_veins" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary veins">pulmonary veins</a>. Radiofrequency ablation for AF can be unipolar (one electrode) or bipolar (two electrodes).<a href="#cite_note-pmid29792146-22">[22]</a> Although bipolar can be more successful, it is technically more difficult, resulting in unipolar being used more often.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29792146-22">[22]</a> But bipolar is more effective in preventing recurrent atrial arrhythmias.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29326836-23">[23]</a>

Ablation is now the standard treatment for SVT and typical atrial flutter, In some conditions, especially forms of intra-nodal re-entry (the most common type of SVT), also called atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia or AVNRT, ablation can also be accomplished by cryoablation (tissue freezing using a coolant which flows through the catheter) which avoids the risk of complete heart block – a potential complication of radiofrequency ablation in this condition. Recurrence rates with cryoablation are higher, though.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Microwave ablation, where tissue is ablated by the microwave energy "cooking" the adjacent tissue, and ultrasonic ablation, creating a heating effect by mechanical vibration, or laser ablation have also been developed but are not in widespread use.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renal_sympathetic_denervation">Renal sympathetic denervation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Renal_sympathetic_denervation" title="Renal sympathetic denervation">Renal sympathetic denervation</a></div>

A new indication for the use of radiofrequency technology has made news in the last few years. <a href="Hypertension" title="Hypertension">Hypertension</a> is a very common condition, with about 1 billion people over the world, nearly 75 million in the US alone. Complications of inadequately controlled hypertension are many and have both individual and global impact. Treatment options include medications, diet, exercise, weight reduction and meditation. Inhibition of the neural impulses that are believed to cause or worsen hypertension has been tried for a few decades. Surgical sympathectomy has helped but not without significant side effects. Therefore, the introduction of non-surgical means of renal denervation using a radiofrequency ablation catheter was enthusiastically welcomed. Although the initial use of radiofrequency-generated heat to ablate nerve endings in the renal arteries to aid in management of 'resistant hypertension' were encouraging, the most recent phase 3 studying looking at catheter-based renal denervation for the treatment of resistant hypertension failed to show any significant reduction in systolic blood pressure.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aesthetics_dermatology">Aesthetics dermatology</h2></div>

<a href="Radiofrequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiofrequency">Radiofrequency</a> ablation<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> is a dermatosurgical procedure by using various forms of alternating current. Types of radiofrequency are electrosection, electrocoagulation, electrodessication and fulguration. The use of radiofrequency ablation has obtained importance as it can be used to treat most of the skin lesions with minimal side effects and complications.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Varicose_veins">Varicose veins</h2></div>

Radiofrequency ablation is a minimally invasive procedure used in the treatment of <a href="Varicose_veins" title="Varicose veins">varicose veins</a>. It is an alternative to the traditional stripping operation. Under ultrasound guidance, a radiofrequency catheter is inserted into the abnormal vein and the vessel treated with radio-energy, resulting in closure of the involved vein. Radiofrequency ablation is used to treat the <a href="Great_saphenous_vein" title="Great saphenous vein">great saphenous vein</a>, the <a href="Small_saphenous_vein" title="Small saphenous vein">small saphenous vein</a>, and the <a href="Perforator_vein" title="Perforator vein">perforator veins</a>. The latter are connecting veins that transport blood from the superficial veins to the deep veins. Branch varicose veins are then usually treated with other minimally invasive procedures, such as <a href="Ambulatory_phlebectomy" title="Ambulatory phlebectomy">ambulatory phlebectomy</a>, <a href="Sclerotherapy" title="Sclerotherapy">sclerotherapy</a>, or <a href="Foam_sclerotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Foam sclerotherapy">foam sclerotherapy</a>. Currently, the VNUS ClosureRFS stylet is the only device specifically cleared by FDA for endovenous ablation of perforator veins.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>

The possibility of skin burn during the procedure is very small, because the large volumes (500 cc) of dilute Lidocaine (0.1%) tumescent anesthesia injected along the entire vein prior to the application of radiofrequency provide a heat sink that absorbs the heat created by the device. Early studies have shown a high success rate with low rates of complications.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Obstructive_sleep_apnea">Obstructive sleep apnea</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Obstructive_sleep_apnea#Radiofrequency_ablation" title="Obstructive sleep apnea">Obstructive sleep apnea § Radiofrequency ablation</a>, and <a href="Sleep_surgery" title="Sleep surgery">Sleep surgery</a></div>

RFA was first studied in <a href="Obstructive_sleep_apnea" title="Obstructive sleep apnea">obstructive sleep apnea</a> (OSA) in a pig model.<a href="#cite_note-Powell1997-29">[29]</a> RFA has been recognized as a <a href="Somnoplasty" title="Somnoplasty">somnoplasty</a> treatment option in selected situations by the <a href="American_Academy_of_Otolaryngology_%E2%80%93_Head_and_Neck_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="American Academy of Otolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery">American Academy of Otolaryngology</a><a href="#cite_note-Powell1997-29">[29]</a> but was not endorsed for general use in the <a href="American_College_of_Physicians" title="American College of Physicians">American College of Physicians</a> guidelines.<a href="#cite_note-Qa2013-30">[30]</a>

The clinical application of <a href="Obstructive_sleep_apnea#Radiofrequency_ablation" title="Obstructive sleep apnea">RFA in obstructive sleep apnea</a> is reviewed in that main article, including controversies and potential advantages in selected <a href="Medicine" title="Medicine">medical situations</a>.

Unlike other electrosurgical devices,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> RFA allows very specific treatment targeting of the desired tissue with a precise <a href="Demarcation_line" title="Demarcation line">line of demarcation</a> that avoids collateral damage, which is crucial in the head and neck region due to its high density of major nerves and blood vessels. RFA also does not require high temperatures. However, overheating from misapplication of RFA can cause harmful effects such as coagulation on the surface of the electrode, boiling within tissue that can leave "a gaping hole", tears, or even charring.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pain_management">Pain management</h2></div>

RFA, or <a href="Rhizotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhizotomy">rhizotomy</a>, was developed by <a href="Nikolai_Bogduk" title="Nikolai Bogduk">Nikolai Bogduk</a> to treat chronic pain arising from the <a href="Facet_joint" title="Facet joint">facet joints</a> in the lower (<a href="Lumbar" title="Lumbar">lumbar</a>) back. <a href="Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">Radiofrequency waves</a> are used to produce heat on specifically identified nerves surrounding the <a href="Zygapophysial_joint" class="mw-redirect" title="Zygapophysial joint">facet joints</a> called the lumbar medial branches of the <a href="Dorsal_ramus_of_spinal_nerve" title="Dorsal ramus of spinal nerve">dorsal ramus of the spinal nerves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> By generating heat around the nerve, the nerve is ablated, thus destroying its ability to transmit signals to the brain.

The nerves to be ablated are identified through injections of local anesthesia (such as <a href="Lidocaine" title="Lidocaine">lidocaine</a>) around the medial branches prior to the RFA procedure to first confirm the diagnosis. If the <a href="Local_anesthesia" title="Local anesthesia">local anesthesia</a> injections provide temporary pain relief, the injection is repeated a second time to confirm the diagnosis. Then RFA is performed on the nerve(s) that responded well to the injections.

RFA is a minimally invasive procedure which can usually be done in day-surgery clinics, going home shortly after completion of the procedure. The person is awake during the procedure, so risks associated with general anesthesia are avoided. Whether for back or knee pain, a drawback for this procedure is that nerves recover function over time, so the pain relief achieved lasts only temporarily (3–15 months) in most people.<a href="#cite_note-nbc-9">[9]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knees">Knees</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Nerve_block#Genicular_nerve_block" title="Nerve block">Nerve block § Genicular nerve block</a></div>

Radiofrequency ablation of sensory nerves in the knee, also called genicular neurotomy or genicular RFA, is clinically preceded by confirming pain reduction upon anesthetizing the main knee sensory nerves in a test procedure called genicular nerve block.<a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-cc-rfa-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-tran-22-35">[35]</a> Genicular nerve block is a short (10-30 minutes), outpatient procedure usually performed weeks before genicular RFA.<a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-conger-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-cc-gnb-37">[37]</a> The extent of pain reduction by injecting a local anesthetic, such as <a href="Bupivacaine" title="Bupivacaine">bupivacaine</a>, at specific locations of the target genicular nerves, is self-assessed by the person for hours after the procedure, leading to confirmation with the physician of the need for RFA.<a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-cc-gnb-37">[37]</a>

In the procedure for genicular RFA, a guide cannula is first directed under local anesthesia and imaging (<a href="Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a> or <a href="Fluoroscopy" title="Fluoroscopy">fluoroscopy</a>) to each target genicular nerve, then the radiofrequency electrode is passed through the cannula, and the electrode tip is heated to about 80 °C (176 °F) for one minute to <a href="Cauterization" title="Cauterization">cauterize</a> a small segment of the nerve.<a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-cc-rfa-34">[34]</a> The heat destroys that segment of the nerve, which is prevented from sending pain signals to the brain.<a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-cc-rfa-34">[34]</a>

As of 2019, several hundred publications showed promise for substantial, long-term (6 months or longer) reduction of knee pain following genicular RFA.<a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-ariel-38">[38]</a>

The US <a href="Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> had approved in 2017 a commercial device using cooled RFA, with effects lasting for up to a year of pain relief from <a href="Knee_arthritis" title="Knee arthritis">knee arthritis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nbc-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> As of 2023, reviews of clinical outcomes indicated that efficacy for reducing knee pain was achieved by ablating three or more branches of the genicular nerve (one of the <a href="Joint" title="Joint">articular</a> branches of the <a href="Tibial_nerve" title="Tibial nerve">tibial nerve</a>).<a href="#cite_note-conger-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-ariel-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-tran-23-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-gupta-41">[41]</a> Other sources indicate 4-5 genicular nerve targets may be justified for ablation to optimize pain relief,<a href="#cite_note-tran-22-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-conger-36">[36]</a> while a 2022 analysis indicated that as many as 10 genicular nerve targets for RFA would produce better long-term relief of knee pain.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a>

Knee pain relief of 50% or more following genicular RFA may last from several months to two years,<a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-tran-23-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-gupta-41">[41]</a> and can be repeated by the same outpatient procedure when pain recurs.<a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a>

An anatomical study of <a href="Cadaver" title="Cadaver">cadaver</a> knees indicated that ultrasound-guided bony landmarks could be used to effectively target the superior medial geniculate nerve, superior lateral geniculate nerve, and inferior medial geniculate nerve – the three nerves commonly targeted for knee RFA<a href="#cite_note-kidd-3">[3]</a> – with average nerve-to-needle distances of 1.7, 3.2, and 1.8 mm, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-kolak-43">[43]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Barrett's_esophagus">Barrett's esophagus</h2></div>

Radiofrequency ablation has been shown to be a safe and effective treatment for <a href="Barrett's_esophagus" title="Barrett's esophagus">Barrett's esophagus</a>. The balloon-based radiofrequency procedure was invented by Robert A. Ganz, Roger Stern and Brian Zelickson in 1999 (System and Method for Treating Abnormal Tissue in the Human Esophagus). While the person is sedated, a catheter is inserted into the esophagus and radiofrequency energy is delivered to the diseased tissue. This outpatient procedure typically lasts from fifteen to thirty minutes. Two months after the procedure, the physician performs an upper endoscopic examination to assess the esophagus for residual Barrett's esophagus. If any Barrett's esophagus is found, the disease can be treated with a focal RFA device. Between 80 and 90% or greater of people in numerous clinical trials have shown complete eradication of Barrett's esophagus in approximately two to three treatments with a favorable safety profile. The treatment of Barrett's esophagus by RFA is durable for up to 5 years.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thyroid_nodules">Thyroid nodules</h2></div>

Radiofrequency ablation has been used successfully on benign thyroid nodules for decades, most notably in Europe, South America and Korea. In the United States, the FDA approved the use of RFA techniques for thyroid nodules in 2018. Since then, professional guidelines reflect its use as a viable treatment modality for thyroid nodules, and the procedure is increasingly applied.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline_in_the_United_States">Timeline in the United States</h3></div>

- 2023: the <a href="American_Thyroid_Association" title="American Thyroid Association">American Thyroid Association</a> issued the position statement "Thyroid ablative procedures provide valid alternative treatment strategies to conventional surgical management for a subset of patients with symptomatic benign thyroid nodules.<a href="#cite_note-sinclair-49">[49]</a>

- 2022: the <a href="American_Association_of_Clinical_Endocrinologists" class="mw-redirect" title="American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists">American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists</a> published an update in Endocrine Practice, stating that the "new image-guided minimally invasive approaches appear safe and effective alternatives when used appropriately and by trained professionals to treat symptomatic or enlarging thyroid masses".<a href="#cite_note-jasim-50">[50]</a>

- 2018: FDA approved the RFA procedure for treatment of benign thyroid nodules.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Procedure">Procedure</h3></div>

The procedure is similar to a thyroid biopsy, although instead of using a needle to remove cells from the nodule, a probe delivers heat to the interior of the nodule that effectively <a href="Cauterization" title="Cauterization">cauterizes</a> the tissue. Over the course of 3-6 months, the nodule will continue to shrink, typically achieving a 50-80% reduction total size.

In order to qualify for an RFA procedure, a person must have a clearly benign thyroid nodule, usually proven by two fine needle aspiration biopsies.

As of 2020, RFA is not recommended for the treatment of <a href="Malignancy" title="Malignancy">malignant</a> thyroid nodules, although research into this topic is ongoing.<a href="#cite_note-rangel-51">[51]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_uses">Other uses</h2></div>

RFA is also used in radiofrequency lesioning for vein closure in areas where intrusive surgery is contraindicated by trauma, and in liver resection to control bleeding (hemostasis) and facilitate the transection process.

This process has also been used to treat <a href="Twin_reversed_arterial_perfusion" title="Twin reversed arterial perfusion">TRAP sequence</a> in multiple gestation pregnancies. This has an acceptable success rate for saving the 'pump' twin in recent studies compared to previous methods including laser photocoagulation.

RFA is used to treat <a href="Uterine_fibroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Uterine fibroids">uterine fibroids</a> using the heat energy of radio frequency waves to ablate the fibroid tissue. The Acessa device<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> obtained FDA approval in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The device is inserted via a laparoscopic probe and guided inside the fibroid tissue using an ultrasound probe. The heat shrinks the fibroids. Clinical data on the procedure show an average of 45% shrinkage.

RFA is also used in the treatment of <a href="Morton's_neuroma" title="Morton's neuroma">Morton's neuroma</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> where the outcome appears to be more reliable than alcohol injections.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">Radio frequency</a></li>

<li><a href="Heart_arrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart arrhythmia">Heart arrhythmia</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-sinclair-49"><a href="#cite_ref-sinclair_49-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSinclairBaekHandsHodak2023" class="citation journal cs1">Sinclair CF, Baek JH, Hands KE, et al. (October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10611977">"General Principles for the Safe Performance, Training, and Adoption of Ablation Techniques for Benign Thyroid Nodules: An American Thyroid Association Statement"</a>. Thyroid. 33 (10): 1150–1170. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1089%2Fthy.2023.0281">10.1089/thy.2023.0281</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10611977">10611977</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37642289">37642289</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-jasim-50"><a href="#cite_ref-jasim_50-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJasimPatelRandolphAdams2022" class="citation journal cs1">Jasim S, Patel KN, Randolph G, et al. (April 2022). "American Association of Clinical Endocrinology Disease State Clinical Review: The Clinical Utility of Minimally Invasive Interventional Procedures in the Management of Benign and Malignant Thyroid Lesions". Endocrine Practice. 28 (4): 433–448. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eprac.2022.02.011">10.1016/j.eprac.2022.02.011</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35396078">35396078</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-rangel-51"><a href="#cite_ref-rangel_51-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRangelSteckVolpiRussell2022" class="citation journal cs1">Rangel LG, Steck JH, Volpi EM, et al. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8984508">"Radiofrequency Ablation of Papillary Thyroid Microcarcinomas"</a>. AACE Clinical Case Reports. 8 (2): 99–101. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aace.2022.02.005">10.1016/j.aace.2022.02.005</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8984508">8984508</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35415224">35415224</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acessaprocedure.com/">"Acessa Health Procedure"</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKing,_Paula2012" class="citation web cs1">King, Paula (December 10, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mercurynews.com/top-stories/ci_22162361/brentwood-medical-company-obtains-fda-approval-new-medical">"Brentwood medical company obtains FDA approval for new medical device"</a>. San Jose, CA: The Mercury News, Digital First Media.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFChuterChuaConnellBlackney2013" class="citation journal cs1">Chuter GS, Chua YP, Connell DA, et al. (January 2013). "Ultrasound-guided radiofrequency ablation in the management of interdigital (Morton's) neuroma". Skeletal Radiol. 42 (1): 107–11. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00256-012-1527-x">10.1007/s00256-012-1527-x</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23073898">23073898</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25166343">25166343</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGurdeziWhiteRamesh2013" class="citation journal cs1">Gurdezi S, White T, Ramesh P (2013). "Alcohol injection for Morton's neuroma: a five-year follow-up". Foot Ankle Int. 34 (8): 1064–67. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1071100713489555">10.1177/1071100713489555</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23669161">23669161</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7317044">7317044</a>.</cite>

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</ol></div></div>

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</style><div id="Tests_and_procedures_involving_the_heart388" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Tests and <a href="Medical_procedure" title="Medical procedure">procedures</a> involving the <a href="Heart" title="Heart">heart</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Interventional_cardiology" title="Interventional cardiology">Interventional cardiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiology_diagnostic_tests_and_procedures" title="Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures">Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiac_imaging" title="Cardiac imaging">Cardiac imaging</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surgery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Heart_valve" title="Heart valve">Heart valves</a> and septa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Heart_valve_repair" title="Heart valve repair">Valve repair</a></li>

<li><a href="Valvulotomy" title="Valvulotomy">Valvulotomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitral_valve_repair" title="Mitral valve repair">Mitral valve repair</a></li>

<li><a href="Valvuloplasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valvuloplasty">Valvuloplasty</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aortic_valvuloplasty" title="Aortic valvuloplasty">aortic</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitral_valvuloplasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitral valvuloplasty">mitral</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Valve_replacement" title="Valve replacement">Valve replacement</a></li>

<li><a href="Aortic_valve_repair" title="Aortic valve repair">Aortic valve repair</a></li>

<li><a href="Aortic_valve_replacement" title="Aortic valve replacement">Aortic valve replacement</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ross_procedure" title="Ross procedure">Ross procedure</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcatheter_aortic_valve_replacement" title="Transcatheter aortic valve replacement">Transcatheter</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mitral_valve_replacement" title="Mitral valve replacement">Mitral valve replacement</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcatheter_pulmonary_valve_replacement" title="Transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement">Transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt>production of septal defect in heart</dt>

<dd>enlargement of existing septal defect

<dl><dd><a href="Atrial_septostomy" title="Atrial septostomy">Atrial septostomy</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Balloon_septostomy" title="Balloon septostomy">Balloon septostomy</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd>creation of septal defect in heart

<dl><dd><a href="Blalock%E2%80%93Hanlon_procedure" title="Blalock–Hanlon procedure">Blalock–Hanlon procedure</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt>shunt from heart chamber to blood vessel</dt>

<dd><a href="Atrium_(heart)" title="Atrium (heart)">atrium</a> to <a href="Pulmonary_artery" title="Pulmonary artery">pulmonary artery</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Fontan_procedure" title="Fontan procedure">Fontan procedure</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd><a href="Left_ventricle" class="mw-redirect" title="Left ventricle">left ventricle</a> to <a href="Aorta" title="Aorta">aorta</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Rastelli_procedure" title="Rastelli procedure">Rastelli procedure</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd><a href="Right_ventricle" class="mw-redirect" title="Right ventricle">right ventricle</a> to <a href="Pulmonary_artery" title="Pulmonary artery">pulmonary artery</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Sano_shunt" title="Sano shunt">Sano shunt</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt>compound procedures</dt>

<dd>for <a href="Transposition_of_the_great_vessels" title="Transposition of the great vessels">transposition of the great vessels</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Arterial_switch_operation" title="Arterial switch operation">Arterial switch operation</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Mustard_procedure" title="Mustard procedure">Mustard procedure</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Senning_procedure" title="Senning procedure">Senning procedure</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd>for univentricular defect

<dl><dd><a href="Norwood_procedure" title="Norwood procedure">Norwood procedure</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Kawashima_procedure" title="Kawashima procedure">Kawashima procedure</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt>shunt from blood vessel to blood vessel</dt>

<dd><a href="Systemic_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic circulation">systemic circulation</a> to <a href="Pulmonary_artery" title="Pulmonary artery">pulmonary artery</a> shunt

<dl><dd><a href="Blalock%E2%80%93Taussig_shunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Blalock–Taussig shunt">Blalock–Taussig shunt</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd><a href="Superior_vena_cava" title="Superior vena cava">SVC</a> to the right <a href="Pulmonary_artery" title="Pulmonary artery">PA</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Glenn_procedure" title="Glenn procedure">Glenn procedure</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cardiac vessels</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<dd><a href="Percutaneous_coronary_intervention" title="Percutaneous coronary intervention">Angioplasty</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Vascular_bypass" title="Vascular bypass">Bypass</a>/<a href="Coronary_artery_bypass_surgery" title="Coronary artery bypass surgery">Coronary artery bypass</a>

<dl><dd><a href="MIDCAB" class="mw-redirect" title="MIDCAB">MIDCAB</a></dd>

<dd><a href="TECAB" class="mw-redirect" title="TECAB">TECAB</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Coronary_stent" title="Coronary stent">Coronary stent</a></dt>

<dd><a href="Bare-metal_stent" title="Bare-metal stent">Bare-metal stent</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Drug-eluting_stent" title="Drug-eluting stent">Drug-eluting stent</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dt>Obstacle removal</dt>

<dd><a href="Endarterectomy" title="Endarterectomy">Endarterectomy</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Atherectomy" title="Atherectomy">Atherectomy</a></dd></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Bentall_procedure" title="Bentall procedure">Bentall procedure</a></li>

<li><a href="Valve-sparing_aortic_root_replacement" title="Valve-sparing aortic root replacement">Valve-sparing aortic root replacement</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="LeCompte_maneuver" title="LeCompte maneuver">LeCompte maneuver</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<dl><dt><a href="Pericardium" title="Pericardium">Pericardium</a></dt>

<dd><a href="Pericardiocentesis" title="Pericardiocentesis">Pericardiocentesis</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Pericardial_window" title="Pericardial window">Pericardial window</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Pericardiectomy" title="Pericardiectomy">Pericardiectomy</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Myocardium" class="mw-redirect" title="Myocardium">Myocardium</a></dt>

<dd><a href="Cardiomyoplasty" title="Cardiomyoplasty">Cardiomyoplasty</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Dor_procedure" title="Dor procedure">Dor procedure</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Septal_myectomy" title="Septal myectomy">Septal myectomy</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Ventricular_reduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventricular reduction">Ventricular reduction</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Alcohol_septal_ablation" title="Alcohol septal ablation">Alcohol septal ablation</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Cardiac_conduction_system" title="Cardiac conduction system">Conduction system</a></dt>

<dd>Maze procedure (<a href="Cox_maze_procedure" title="Cox maze procedure">Cox maze</a> and <a href="Minimaze_procedure" title="Minimaze procedure">minimaze</a>)</dd>

<dd><a href="Catheter_ablation" title="Catheter ablation">Catheter ablation</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Cryoablation" title="Cryoablation">Cryoablation</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Artificial_cardiac_pacemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial cardiac pacemaker">Pacemaker insertion</a></dd>

<dd><a href="S-ICD" class="mw-redirect" title="S-ICD">S-ICD</a> implantation</dd>

<dd><a href="Implantable_cardioverter-defibrillator" title="Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator">ICD</a> implantation</dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_resynchronization_therapy" title="Cardiac resynchronization therapy">Cardiac resynchronization therapy</a></dd></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Left_atrial_appendage_occlusion" title="Left atrial appendage occlusion">Left atrial appendage occlusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiotomy" title="Cardiotomy">Cardiotomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Heart_transplantation" title="Heart transplantation">Heart transplantation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<dl><dt><a href="Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">Electrophysiology</a></dt>

<dd><a href="Electrocardiography" title="Electrocardiography">Electrocardiography</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Vectorcardiography" title="Vectorcardiography">Vectorcardiography</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Magnetocardiography" title="Magnetocardiography">Magnetocardiography</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd><a href="Holter_monitor" title="Holter monitor">Holter monitor</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Implantable_loop_recorder" title="Implantable loop recorder">Implantable loop recorder</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_stress_test" title="Cardiac stress test">Cardiac stress test</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Bruce_protocol" title="Bruce protocol">Bruce protocol</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd><a href="Electrophysiology_study" title="Electrophysiology study">Electrophysiology study</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Wireless_ambulatory_ECG" title="Wireless ambulatory ECG">Wireless ambulatory ECG</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Cardiac_imaging" title="Cardiac imaging">Cardiac imaging</a></dt>

<dd><a href="Angiocardiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiocardiography">Angiocardiography</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Echocardiography" title="Echocardiography">Echocardiography</a>

<dd><a href="Myocardial_perfusion_imaging" title="Myocardial perfusion imaging">Myocardial perfusion imaging</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging">Cardiovascular MRI</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_ventriculography" title="Cardiac ventriculography">Ventriculography</a>

<dl><dd><a href="Radionuclide_ventriculography" class="mw-redirect" title="Radionuclide ventriculography">Radionuclide ventriculography</a></dd></dl></dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_catheterization" title="Cardiac catheterization">Cardiac catheterization</a>/<a href="Coronary_catheterization" title="Coronary catheterization">Coronary catheterization</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_CT" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac CT">Cardiac CT</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Cardiac_PET" title="Cardiac PET">Cardiac PET</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Sound" title="Sound">sound</a></dt>

<dd><a href="Phonocardiogram" title="Phonocardiogram">Phonocardiogram</a></dd></dl>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cardiology_diagnostic_tests_and_procedures" title="Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures">Function tests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Impedance_cardiography" title="Impedance cardiography">Impedance cardiography</a></li>

<li><a href="Ballistocardiography" title="Ballistocardiography">Ballistocardiography</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiotocography" title="Cardiotocography">Cardiotocography</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cardioversion" title="Cardioversion">Cardioversion</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcutaneous_pacing" title="Transcutaneous pacing">Transcutaneous pacing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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